Antibodies for Investigating SARS-CoV-2 Recognition by Host Cells

ACE-2

ACE-2 is a ubiquitously expressed type I membrane glycoprotein and zinc metalloprotease that regulates the ACE/RAS pathway by degrading Angiotensin II. ACE-2 has been shown to be the entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2.

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DPPIV/CD26

DPPIV/CD26 is a serine exopeptidase that is expressed on the surface of a wide variety of cell types. It plays a role in many biological and pathological processes including T cell activation and proliferation. Research has proposed that DPPIV/CD26 may be a potential receptor for SARS-CoV-2 as it is the main entry receptor for the MERS coronavirus, and structural studies have suggested that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein could directly interact with it. However, DDPIV/CD26 has yet to be shown to be a functional receptor for SARS-CoV-2.

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Cathepsin B/L

Cathepsin B and Cathepsin L are endosomal cysteine proteases that facilitate SARS-CoV-2 infection of host cells. SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells requires two separate cleavage events of its S protein. Cathepsins B/L are responsible for the second proteolytic event, which occurs within the S2 subunit, that unmasks the viral fusion peptide and allows for membrane fusion.

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CEACAM-1/CD66a

CEACAM-1/CD66a is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein involved in intracellular adhesion. It has been shown to be the receptor of the mouse hepatitis virus, a murine coronavirus, and can regulate virus induced CD8+ T cell functions. CEACAM-1/CD66a is expressed in airway epithelium and research has shown that tyrosine kinase inhibitors, one proposed treatment for COVID-19, downregulates CEACAM-1/CD66a gene expression.

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EMMPRIN/CD147

EMMPRIN/CD147 is a multi-domain type I transmembrane protein. It has been shown to have multiple functions as each domain can interact with different proteins and exhibit different functions, including the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases. EMMPRIN/CD147 has been proposed to be used as a receptor by SARS-CoV-2 for cell invasion.

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Furin

Furin is a serine protease that processes a variety of proproteins by cleaving after Arg-Xaa-Lys/Arg-Arg-like motifs. Research has shown that SARS-CoV-2 contains a Furin-cleavage-site (FCS) in the sequence of its S protein. Indeed, Furin cleaves the S protein at the interface of the S1 and S2 subunits, and proteolytic processing of the S protein by Furin is important for the replication and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2.

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Neuropilin-1

Neuropilin-1 is a cell surface receptor that is abundantly expressed in endothelial cells of the olfactory and respiratory epithelium. Neuropilin-1, which is known to interact with Furin-cleaved substrates, has been shown to bind to the SARS-CoV-2 S protein and facilitate viral infection.

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Neutrophil Elastase/ELA2

Neutrophil Elastase/ELA2 is a serine protease that is released by activated neutrophils. It is one of the key enzymes shown to cleave the S protein of coronaviruses, facilitating viral entry. Additionally, Neutrophil Elastase/ELA2 can degrade extracellular matrix proteins, contributing to the pathology of several lung disorders including adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).  Neutrophil Elastase/ELA2 inhibitors are being investigated as a potential treatment for COVID-19 as they could potentially limit viral infection by preventing S protein activation and diminish the damage to lung connective tissue caused by the enzyme.

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PIKFyve

PIKFyve (Phosphatidylinositol 3-Phosphate 5-Kinase Type III) is an enzyme that synthesizes a key phosphoinositide (PI(3,5)P2) involved in regulating endosome dynamics. Research has suggested that inhibition of this enzyme may reduce SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Antibodies Applications Key: B/N Blocking/Neutralization, CyTOF CyTOF-Ready, ELISA ELISA Capture and/or Detection, Flow Flow Cytometry, ICC Immunocytochemistry, IHC Immunohistochemistry, IP Immunoprecipitation, SW Simple Western™, WB Western Blot